The Crown Jewels of the House of Austria

Medium common combined (Mittelschild) Coat of Arms of Emperor Charles I. of Austria, 1916-1922

Throughout history, the Habsburg lands have had many names and could hardly ever be described as a centralised state. Whether Habsburgische Erblande, Erzherzogtum Österreich, Kaisertum Österreich or Österreich-Ungarn, these multinational lands were not so much linked by the river Danube as they were by the Habsburg dynasty (Haus Österreich), whose rule stretched from the the North to Black Sea.

Ever since the 1520 there has been a Habsburg project to bring the Bohemian, Magyar and Austrian (german speaking hereditary) lands under a unified leadership. There has been much confusion around the term Austria, today it refers to a nation state and in the past it was meant to refer to a multi-ethnic Empire. 

One foot in the Holy Roman Empire and one foot central-eastern Europe, its focus shifted periodically from defending the Holy Roman Empire from lutheran heresy and defending southern eastern Europe from Ottoman incursion to the south.

The Austrian Empire after the Congress of Vienna (1815-1816) and before the Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich of 1867

J. H. Elliott in his 1992 book “A Europe of Composite Monarchies” tracks the development of the centralised European State and highlights how Austria was a major exception to the norms of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Despite notable efforts at centralisation, -for example under Joseph II (1780-1790) or Franz Joseph (1848-1916)-, whenever the sovereign wanted to make a decision for his lands, more that 20 identical declarations would have to be made, one for each Kronland (Crown-land), Großürstentum (Arch-principality), Grafschaft (County), Markgrafenschaft (Margraviate), Herzogtum (Duchy), Erzherzogtum (Archduchy) and Königreich (Kingdom).

The various counties, duchies and kingdoms were liked to one another through him. Indeed until the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 they were entirely independent political entities and only came under the same state structure in 1804 during the napoleonic wars (when Francis I. founded Kaisertum Österreich).

Despite two periods of attempted centralisation before him, the title of emperor Franz Ferdinand in 1916 was as follows:

Francis Joseph the First, by the Grace of God Emperor of Austria, Apostolic King of Hungary, King of Bohemia, King of Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia and Lodomeria and Illyria; King of Jerusalem etc., Archduke of Austria; Grand Duke of Tuscany and Cracow, Duke of Lorraine, of Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola and of Bukovina; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Upper and Lower Silesia, of Modena, Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, of Oświęcim, Zator and Ćeszyn, Friuli, Ragusa and Zara; Princely Count of Habsburg and Tyrol, of Kyburg, Gorizia and Gradisca; Prince of Trent and Brixen; Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and in Istria; Count of Hohenems, Feldkirch, Bregenz, Sonnenberg, Lord of Trieste, of Kotor, and over the Windic march; Grand Voivode of the Voivodship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar.

This multitude of titles was often very confusing even for the people of the time and eventually all the lands under his rule were referred to as the Habsburg monarchy. However for every title there was a coat of arms and a crown. The head of the House of Habsburg would have a coronation or investiture for each and every title, complete with unique crown, mantel, sceptre, orb and tabard.

Coronation Mantle and ceremonial sword of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, 1838 Photo: Niall Buckley

In the heart of Vienna, secured behind a blast through vault of the Imperial Hofburg place lies one of the best collections of Crown Jewels on the face of the planet. The Kaiserliche Schatzkammer (Imperial treasury) however does not have the entirety of the vast coronation regalia associated with the various titles of the House of Habsburg.

In the intimidating hill-top medieval castle of Prague and the Neo-gothic riverside Hungarian parliament building in Budapest, can be found the Bohemian and Magyar crown jewels respectively.

Just as the crown jewels were scattered throughout the empire, even more so were the artistic depictions incorporating the imagery of the Crown Jewels. Iconologically, they served to reinforce the unity of various peoples of the empire under the fatherly leadership of their emperor, both acknowledging their regional identity, while fostering a more abstract supernational one.

Tabard for Herald of Ferdinand III as Holy Roman Emperor (1613), in the Kaiserliche Schatzkammer Vienna. Photo: Niall Buckley

One of the best visual manifestations of this series of crowns can be found in the Wiener Pestsäule in Gabenplatz, Vienna (directly opposite the well known and similarly baroque Peterskirche). The monument, officially known as the ‘Pest- und Dreifaltigkeitssäule’ (Plague and Trinity column) was in a many ways a response to the Louis XIV.’s (the so-called Sun King) monument at the Parisian Place des Victoires.

King Louis commissioned an artistically impressive monument in central Paris, in his honour. Atop the baroque structure stood the King, the ultimate source of moral authority, intentionally depicted as if he were a type of Demi-God.

Austria saw herself as the defender of the Catholic Faith, the champion of Christendom that would fend off decadent France, Protestant Sweden and the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It thus incorporated the idea of Austria as “Pietas Austriaca” into its national mythology.

Wiener Peststule, Grabenplatz, Vienna. Photo: Niall Buckey

In response to king Louis’ provocative monument, Leopold I of Austria sought to have his own monument, not presenting himself as an all powerful unitary sovereign but rather the Emperor of a composite conglomeration of various medieval political entities. In contrast to the proud French King, he is depicted as an intermediary between Heaven and Earth. The kneeling Leopold receives his crown (The Rudolfine Crown) from the angels (representing the messengers of God).

This typically Baroque artistic manifestation of ideological absolutism portrays the Emperor as having a divinely willed delegated authority to rule in the name of the Holy Trinity on earth.

The entire upper most section of the monument, in rich gold, conveys the beatific glorious majesty of the three persons of the Trinity. The Trinity is represented in the traditional format of God the Father with a globe under his left hand and bestowing a blessing with his right hand, God the Son as the Resurrected Christ carrying a cross and God the Holy Spirit in the form of a Dove.

Darstellung der Dreifaltigkeit Photo: Austria Forum, Peter Diem

Leading up to the three persons of the Trinity are the hierarchy of angels, from top to bottom; Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones, Dominions, Virtues Powers, Principalities, Archangels and Angels. This last category carry a series of crown down from heaven

Notably the monument contains three sides, with each corner featuring crown, coat of arms and a Latin quote overhead, -dedicated to one of the three persons of the Holy Trinity-. The three most prominent titles which emperor Leopold held in the 17th century are represented, namely, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Hungary and King of Bohemia.

Above the coat of arms and crown of the Holy Roman Empire are the latin words “Deo Patri Creatori” (God the Father, the creator). Above the corner representing the Kingdom of Hungary is written “Deo Filio Redemptori” (God the son, the redeemer). Above the Bohemian crown and arms is written “Deo, Spiritui Sanctificatori” (God the Holy Spirit).

Some could say that in the specific allocation of crown tittles to each person of the Holy Trinity, we can get some insight into the hierarchy of prestige between the various Habsburg titles.

Holy Roman Empire

1512 painting of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor by Albrecht Dürer

Ever since 1440 (with minimal interruption in the mid 18th century), the title of Holy Roman Emperor had been held by the House of Habsburg. The Habsburgs became so linked to the title that they even integrated its iconography into their own state heraldry. Many Habsburg Emperors were crowned “Vivente imperatore”. This refers to a process where a new Emperor is crowned while his predecessor is still alive. This was done to ensure inheritance and avoid claims against his legitimacy to rule

Charlemagne was first Emperor of the Romans and became the archetype role model for all subsequent emperors. He was crowned by Pope Leo III on 25th December 800AD in Rome. In a display of reverence and continuity, each of his successors would use Charlemagne’s ceremonial sword, orb and crown for their own coronation. This tradition would continue for a millennium.

The crown however was not worn by Charlemagne himself but rather dates back to the 10th century, commissioned by one of his successors (probably Otto I and Conrad II). It features scenes from the Old Testament, specifically Kind David and his son King Solomon, who were seen to be the models of kingly justice.

Across the left side of iconic golden hoop of the crown, the words “Chuonradus Dei Gratia” (Conrad, by the Grace of God) are inscribed in precious gems. On the opposite right side of the hoop is inscribed “Romanoru Imperator Aug” (Emperor of the Romans and Augustus).

The rise of revolutionary France a thousand years later would challenge the European old world order. In 1804 Francis II. would become Francis I. upon declaring the foundation of the new Austrian Empire, a unified legal structure for all the lands under Habsburg control.

1905 Postcard of Austria-Hungary personified. Source: Pinterest

Vice-admiral of the K.u.K. (Imperial and royal) War Navy and Naval Jack with generic crown of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. Source: Pinterest

This point marks the end of the Holy Roman Empire which was formally abolished two years later. At this stage Napoleon had already annexed and puppeted the majority of German states. To make way for his new Confederation of the Rhine (Rheinbund), he sent the Holy Roman Emperor (Francis of Austria) an ultimatum to abolish the millennium old union.

A rising Prussia and unstoppable French Empire resulted in end of a major (if not mere ceremonial) source of power and prestige for the House of Habsburg. The legacy of Holy Roman Imperial imagery would however continue into the 19th and 20th century. After a decisive defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War and faced with internal Hungarian nationalist revolt, the Habsburg Monarchy agreed to a new constitutional arrangement which established the dual monarchy of Austro-Hungary in 1867.

This new state structure required a new flag. It was decided to replace the traditional yellow and black flag (which would from then on would only represent the Cisleithanian western half of the empire), and adopt a hybrid of the 12th century red-white-red Babenberg flag of the archduke of Austria and the red-white-green of Hungary. To the left was the seal of Austria and overhead a generic crown of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. To the right was the seal of Hungary with the crown of St. Stephan overhead.

From 1867 to 1915 the naval jack (maritime flag) of Austria-Hungary also featured this generic crown of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire above the Babenberg seal on a Babenberg flag. In 1915 a new naval flag with the crown of St. Stephan was introduced to include the Hungarian half of the monarchy.

1934-1938 State Seal of Federal State of Austria. Source: Austria-forum.org, Peter Diem

Interwar Austria, under Dollfuß and then Schuschnigg, identified with the legacy of the Holy Roman Empire, seeing it as a repository of “true Germaneness”, in contrast to the new Prussian “false Germaneness” which had taken root in National Socialist Germany.

To this end they incorporated the double eagle into the new Austrian flag in 1934. While they removed anti-Habsburg legal restrictions imposed by socialists and Entente powers, Schuschnigg’s reforms fell short of a total restoration of the Monarchy and the new state heraldry lacked a crown.

Hitler speaking at nazi exhibition of Crown Jewels 1938. Source: Der Spiegel

By the 20th century the Holy Roman Empire had developed a strong political meaning. Habsburg legitimists and Catholic conservatives saw it as a possible counter weight to the new secularists and anti-christian ideology of National Socialism. For this reason Hitler developed a plan for military intervention should Austria decide to restore Otto von Habsburg to the throne of Austria. Nostalgia for this old first Reich was a direct rejection for the legitimacy of the new third Reich.

The crown of the Holy Roman Emperor was kept in Nuremberg for over 300 years from the 15th century onwards. It was only allowed to leave the city for the coronation of a new Emperor. During the napoleonic war it was removed to Vienna for safe keeping. A wise decision was soon Bavaria was puppeted by revolutionary France.

After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, with the Empire having been abolished, it was decided that Austria should be allowed to keep the crown. In 1938 with the Nazi German Anschluss of Austria, the Crown of the Holy Roman Empire was brought to Nuremberg for a large nationals socialists revisionists exhibition, at which Hitler himself spoke at the opening ceremony. During the Second World War the U.S: Fine Arts Division recovered the Crown Jewels and it was decided by an allied commission that the “Crown of Charlemagne” be returned to Vienna.

Hungary

Emperor Charles I of Austria as the Apostolic King of Hungary. Source: Rainer Hubert Collection

Of all the Habsburg lands, Hungary certainly had the closest link between its crown and national identity. The eastern half of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Transleithania was officially called The Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen.

Illustrative map depicting partition of Austria-Hungary into Cisleithanian and Transleithania halves based off the 1867 Ausgleich. Artwork: John Miller PL, 2012

It was also the crown that carried the most supernatural symbolism. According to Catholic tradition, the Szent Korona (Holy Crown of Hungary) was the crown of Saint Stephan I of Hungary. Upon his death, he offered to crown to the Virgin Mary and declared her the Queen of Hungary.

The barer of this 11th century crown was referred to as the “Apostolic King of Hungary”. His power comes not from his dynasty but from being the barer of the Holy Crown, to which even he is subordinate to.

The crown featured on the Austro-Hungarian Flag of 1867 and also on the interwar flag of Hungary, as technically Hungary was still a Kingdom, ruled by a former K.u.K naval Admiral Miklós Horthy as regent and not the Habsburgs directly. This was due to the unsuccessful attempts of Charles I of Austria to regain his throne in 1921 and his subsequent exile to the Portuguese island of Madeira.

The return of the Crown of Saint Stephan I to the Hungarian Parliament in 1978, where to resides to this day. Source: Hungary Today

Today the most common term used today to describe the central european lands ruled over by the Habsburg Dynasty is The Habsburg Monarchy (Habsburgermonarchie). However this term is the byproduct of a mid 19th century debate on the future of the collective of Habsburg lands and was only formalised in the wake of the 1867 Ausgleich between the westen Cisleithanian “Austrian” and eastern Transleithanian “Hungarian” sides of the new dual monarchy.

During the final weeks of the second world war, the Holy Crown was removed from Budapest by the occupying national socialist forces and transported west to the small Austrian village off Mattsee. Once recovered, it was decided to kept the Hungarian Crown Jewels put of the reach of the Soviets.

Hungarian Parliament Building, Budapest. Photo: Ivanhoe

Today the legacy of Habsburg rule remains strong in Hungary. Despite the removal of the Holy Crown of St. Stephan from the state seal by the post second world war communist government, in 1978 the US government decided to return the crown to Hungary, which was safely secured in Fort Knox, Kentucky.

The symbol of the crown played an important role in the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and since 1990 after the downfall of communism, the Holy Crown of Saint Stephan found once more a place in the seal of Hungary.

Austrian Empire

Austrian Imperial Crown, Scepter and Orb in the Kaiserliche Schatzkammer Vienna. Photo: Flickr, starbuck77

From the 1600s onwards, the highest crown on the Mittelschild of the ruling Habsburg monarch, was that of the Rudolf Krone. The Rudolfinische Hauskrone was presented to Emperor Rudolf II. by Jan Vermeyen in 1602. It served as the crown of the Austrian Empire since 1804 when it was used in the coronation of Francis I. as emperor of new Kaisertum Österreich.

Imperator ove rthe Ottoman Empire

Vermeyen was a Renaissance master craftsman and specialist in goldsmithing. This crown is considered his masterwork and no expense was spared. The Crown is solid gold and richly decorated in various precious stone from diamonds to pearls to rubies. Each of  Crown, Scepter and Orb are topped with a notably large sapphire.

The golden sides of the Crown feature Rudolf II in four historical scenes; his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor in Regensburg, his advance on horseback up coronation hill in Pressburg (to be crowned King of Hungary), his Coronation procession through Prague (to be crowned King of Bohemia) and finally a scene depicting him as Imperator (victorious general) over the Ottoman Empire.

Jugendstil Art by Heinrich Lefler, featured in the 1899 Österreichische Kalender Monatsbilder, celebrating the birthday of Emperor Franz Joseph.

Most notable about the scenes selected is that they focus on the highest De Jure titles of the Emperor, namely King of Hungary and Bohemia, and not that of Archduke of Austria.

The last scene, that of a victorious Rudolf, having vanquished the Ottoman Empire from Europe was optimistic and premature. The Crown was commissioned during the “Long Turkish war” (1593-1606). The Habsburgs would not be successful in their effort to liberate Europe from Ottoman influence until 19th century and even as late as 1683, Ottoman armies had made attempts at besieging Vienna.

Ansichtskarte Deutscher Schulverein ca. 1915. Postcard of the German Students association

Jugendstil artist Heinrich Lefler in his 1899 illustrated calendar, under the month of August, featured an image of two angels carrying down the Rudolf crown from heaven

The Rudolf Crown soon became the one of the primary universal symbols of the monarchy. The personification Austria was often seen depicted wearing the crown and a tunic bearing the seal of Doppeladler (double eagle).

A good example of this is the wartime postcard of Austria-Hungary and Germany published by the Germanic Students union. Austria can be seen on the left and the German Empire on the right, each represented by the coat of arms and crowns of their respective houses (Habsburg and Hohenzollern).

The Hohenzollerns became the Emperors of the newly formed German Empire in 1871 (the second Reich). They choose to model their new crown on that of the imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire.

Imperial Gospel of the HRE. Cover from 17th century. Photo: Niall Buckley

From its conception, the Rudolf crown developed a super-natural meaning. Not only were crown-carrying angels used to communicate the idea of Divine Rule Monarchy, but 17th century goldsmiths (commissioned by the Emperor) depicted God the Father, enthroned in heaven as wearing he Rudolf crown. The best example of this can be found in the 17th century cover of the Imperial Gospel, an illuminated manuscript from the Middle Ages.

The solid gold cover shows the annunciation and incarnation of Our Lord, complete with the Virgin Mary, God the Father enthroned, the Archangel Gabriel and the motifs of the four evangelists in each corner, saint John, saint Matthew, saint Luke and saint Mark (clockwise from top left corner).

This was a clear statement that the monarch ruled in the place of God, and in classic Anti-Lockean sentiment, needed not the consent of the governed to rule.

Archduchy of Austria

Photo: Austria Archducal Crown in the Schatzkammer of Klosterneuburg monastery. Copyright Stift Klosterneuburg. Photograph: Rita Newman.

The Erzherzogshut (literally the Archdukes hat) was the crown of Archduchy of Austria. The lastest module was in use since 1616 and is currently located in Augustine monastery of Klosterneuburg outside Vienna.

The Erzherzogshut was allowed to be used solely for the Investiture of a new archduke and an event known as the Erbhuldigung. The Erbhuldigung was a traditional oath of fidelity from the middle ages.

Mittelschild of Austria-Hungary 1867-1915

From 1620 until Ferdinand I in 1835 it became less about the formalisation of the mutual privileges and responsibilities of knights, barons and earls and the Emperor, and more of a unilateral declaration of obedience.

It was intended to be a symbol of the legitimacy of Habsburg rule and the loyalty of the various estates towards the Emperor, who also held the title of archduke. A notable exception to this tradition was Joseph II who did not participate in the ritual due to his centralising attitudes. He rather sought to reject any symbolic acknowledgment of the feudal privileges of the estates. The Erzherzogshut would always be returned to Stift Klosterneuburg for safe keeping after the ceremony. 

In the medium coat of arms (Mittelwappen) of Emperor Franz Joseph we can see the various seals of the lands that he had sovereignty over. Each set has a crown over head. Between the sword and body of the Reichsadler (Imperial Eagle), one can see the Seal of Österreich unter der Enns (modern day Lower Austria), which is identifiable both by its five golden eagles on a blue background and the 1616 Erzherzogshut overhead.

Oberösterreich Fahne with Erzherzogshut. Photo: Flaggenplatz.at

Some coat of arms are marked by the same crown, as in the case of Styria (Steiermark), Tyrol (Tirol), Salzburg, Silesia and Moravia (Schlesien und Mähren). These lands were part of the hereditary Habsburg lands and below the rank of Archduchy. This was done despite of the fact that in some cases -like that of Steiermark- smaller entities did have their own crown, which they integrate into their State flag till this day.

Stiermark Fahren. Photo: WeltFlagge.de

Salzburg Fahne. Photo: Dominik Kollau, unsplash.com

Despite two periods of secularist republican redesign (post WW1 and post WW2), the state iconography of Austria still features many references to the Habsburg crown Jewels.

Oberösterreich still uses Erzherzogshut in its flag. Salzburg, as a former Archbishopric, uses the generic crown of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire. Styria, while historically a mere duchy, uses its own crown for its modern day coat of arms.

It is notable that these titles were of secondary importance for the reigning Habsburg monarch. Kingdoms were sovereign, while archduchies and duchies were subordinate to a higher authority.

In the case of Österreich unter und ober der Enns (lower and upper Austria) this was of little everyday importance as the ruling Habsburg was simultaneously Emperor and Archduke.

Only the Austrian western German speaking and Bohemian lands were part of the Holy Roman Empire (with the exception of Burgenland). The remainder of the Habsburg lands were ruled either as crown lands or as kingdoms.

The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (Königreich Galizien und Lodomerien), while geographically on the eastern periphery of the Austria-Hungary, was also a part of the the western Cisleithanian half of the Habsburg lands. This majority Polish and Ruthenian (Ukrainian) kingdom features an iconic Hoop Crown “geschlossenen Bügel-Krone”.

Bohemia

Crown of Saint Wenceslas. Picture: K. Pacovsky

The Crown of Saint Wenceslas (Wenzelskrone) is the centre piece of the Bohemian Habsburg Crown Jewels. It is proudly displayed in St. Vitus Cathedral, within the walls of Prague castle.

The 14th century crown, dedicated to the patron saint of Bohemia, Saint Wenceslaus I, features some of the largest and highest quality precious stones of any European crown.

Burg Karlstein near Prague Source: Viator

Towards the end of the 30 years war during the Swedish advance in bohemia in 1646, the Wenzelskrone was moved from Prague to Vienna for safe keeping in the imperial treasury. It was eventually returned in 1791 before the coronation of Leopold II at the request of the Bohemian estates. Under this system several keys were issues to Nobels and the Bishop of Prague

Seal of Kingdom of Bohemia. Source: Pinterest

Similarly, during the Austro-Prussia war of 1866 (Deutsche Krieg /preußisch-österreichischer Krieg), the Wenzelskrone was briefly moved once again from Prague to Vienna, but finally returned for good in 1867.

Bohemia, specifically Burg Karlstein outside of Prague, was also the location of the Habsburg Crown Jewels for centuries (including Crown of Bohemia and Crown of the Holy Roman Empire). However this changed during the 15th century Hussite wars, when the Imperial coronation regalia were moved to Nuremberg in 1421 for safe keeping.

The 1745 loss of the productive Silesian territory under Maria Theresa, was a major set back for Habsburg prestige and geopolitical strength. It is notable that these Bohemian lands, inherited in 1526, would now be partitioned and ruled between an industrialising Prussia to the north and a traditional Austria to the south.  

Legend has it that if any unworthy usurper to the throne were to wear the crown, that he would meet certain death. Reinhard Heydrich as Reichs-Protector (military governor) of Bohemia during the national socialist occupation was said to have worn the crown mockingly. When he was assassinated in June 1942, many considered his downfall as prophetic.

Even though Franz Joseph and Charles I were Kings of Bohemia, the last official coronation was that of Ferdinand I of Austria in 1836. Ferdinand I abdicated the throne in 1848 in the wake of massive continent wide revolt and revolution. Ferdinand I spent the rest of his days in Prague Castle, dying there in 1875.

Henrik Hanau’s Trialist proposal from 1905.

His successor Franz Joseph had little time for Bohemia.In 1867 he agreed to a new constitutional arrangement that gave Hungary a special legal status, while in practice relegating Bohemia to the status of a mere Crown-Land, governed from Vienna, treatment not befitting of a Kingdom.

Orb of the King of Bohemia. Source:Pinterest

His wartime successor Charles I of Austria, like his uncle Franz Ferdinand, sought to reform Austria to be more inclusive to the Bohemian and other Slavic populations in the Balkans. He forwarded the idea of trialism. Eventually these proposals came to nothing as there was a sizeable German speaking population in the Sudetenland and Prague, and the Hungarian nobility blocked any reform that would see them lose any influence in the Slovakian, Croatian and Serbian parts of the Transleithania.

The crown of Saint Wenceslas still plays a role in modern day Czech political life. Despite being a post communist secular republic, the inauguration ceremony of the Czech president involves the display of the crown jewels in Prague Castle.

The Globus cruciger (Reichsapfel/Imperial Orb) of the King of Bohemia features a depiction of the battle of King David and Goliath on the upper hemisphere and on the lower hemisphere a depiction of Adam in the Garden of Eden. Beneath the cross, one can find the inscription: “Domine In Virtute Tua Letabitur Rex Et Super Salutare Tuam Exultabit” (O Lord, in Thy strength the king will be glad and in Thy salvation how greatly he will rejoice). These were the words that were to guide any monarch in the exercise of his duties. An important reminder that all men are judged equally before their creator, and any temporal authority they might have, as the Wiener Pestsäule would remind us, has its origin in the triune God.

Niall Buckley,

July 2020

Wiener Pestsäule in Gabenplatz Vienna. Photo: Niall Buckley