From Norseman to Norman

Bayeux Tapestry: The Normans defeat the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings 1066

Over the span of a few generations the Normans went from master raiders to master builders. Their legacy spans from the British Isles to the heart of the Mediterranean. They influenced the language we speak, the surnames we use, the laws we obey and the architecture that surrounds us. Their story is one of redirected civilizational energy, redirected from destruction to construction.

One might find it difficult to believe that the same spirit that led the 793 raid on Lindisfarne, would one day go on to conquer the Holy Land in the name of Christendom. This spirit is the spirit of the North, this transformation is the transformation from Norseman to Norman.

14th Century depiction of Rollo and his men navigating the river Seine

The 9th and 10th centuries were the age of the Vikings. Setting out from their Scandinavian harbour fjords they embarked on seasonal raiding, submitting first the north sea coast and then inland river settlements to their will. They imposed fear at the mere sight of their Long-Ships. Their victims referred to them with apocalyptic language, often calling them demons, a sign that the end of days was soon to come.

For the Vikings of early medieval Europe, France was a land of opportunity. Charlemagne’s empire had collapsed after his death (814 AD) and his grandchildren divided up Central Europe between them in the 830s. The new King of France, Charles III, was weak, his realm suffering from feudal faction infighting.

To make matters worse, “Rollo the Viking” was raiding the riverways of northern France, hampering trade and terrorising the local population. Charles, rather than fighting with Rollo and his couple dozen thousand raiders, met with him as he was laying siege to the town of Chartres. Charles saw the new Norse warriors as not only a threat, but an opportunity. Who better to defend West Francia from the Vikings than a Viking himself.

14th Century depiction of baptism of Rollo

Rollo and Charles negotiated the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte in 911. Charles gave Rollo all the land from the river Epte to the Coast. This area was then referred to by the French as “Normandy'', meaning land of the Northmen. To seal the deal Rollo would swear vassalage (a feudal oath of loyalty) to Charles and would marry the King's daughter, the beautiful Gisela. Rollo would convert to Catholicism before the wedding and overnight a group of Vikings embarked on a process of integration and innovation.

The next 150 years saw the Vikings in this region abandoning the old gods in favour of Christ and abandoning their Scandinavian languages in favour of a local form of French. Another important development that would separate them from their northern Viking brethren was the adaption of the horse, both as a beast of burden to work the land and as a weapon of war. No more would they plunder to attain what they did not have, but rather carve out a living for themselves and build a society worthy of the name civilisation.

Château de Falaise Normandy ©A. de Valroger/Michelin

Civilisational energy is an abstract concept and thus difficult to define. However it can certainly have material manifestations. The Normans had this energy in abundance. They built mighty castles dominating the hillsides of northern France and magnificent cathedrals with a zeal which often typifies recent converts.

They were above all adaptable to their surrounding circumstances and perceptive to opportunities that presented themselves. They took risks where others would play it safe. This can be seen from their conquests in Sicily (999) and the Holy Land (1099). This ambitious proactive will to dominate no doubt is a legacy of their Viking heritage.

Abbey of Saint-Étienne, Caen ©urban_wikicommons

After their transition they were no doubt distinct from their Viking cousins. Yet, they did continue a seafaring military tradition. This can be seen in the resemblance of their long-ships to Viking ships and not the inferior, slower and deeper draft continental cog-ships. The longship’s narrow hull and shallow draft made it ideal for both sea and river navigation. This provided the Normans with the versatility necessary to surprise their enemy, popping out of nowhere striking and moving on to their next target before an enemy force had any time to react.

However unlike their Viking cousins, they were more than capable of fighting pitched battles or even sieges. Their domestication of the horse had given rise to the Norman knight. They also adopted the continental bow and crossbow.

Six generations after Rollo, came the birth of perhaps the best known Norman of all, William the Conqueror. William shared the same ambition as his great-great-great-great grandfather Rollo. But by now Rollo’s descendants were fully integrated with European society and had acquired an heir of respectability. They had intermarried into the great noble houses of Europe. Therefore when Edward the Confessor, King of England, died in 1066, William had a strong claim to his title. Indeed the celibate Edward promised William the throne and indeed even the English nobles swore an oath on the relics of saints that they would uphold Williams right to rule.

Bayeux Tapestry: The Normans crossing the English Channel towards Sussex 1066

Therefore it came as a shock for the people of Normandy to discover that Harold Godwinson, an Anglo-Saxon noble, had immediately crowned himself king upon Edwards death, claiming that Edward had promised him alone the throne upon his deathbed. William as any respectable medieval Duke would do, declared war and set out to claim his rightful title, a claim which was supported by Pope Alexander II. Both Harold and William would meet head on at the Battle of Hastings that very same year.

At the Battle of Hastings 1066 not only did two civilisations clash but two theories of war. Facing the Normans was the Anglo-Saxon army of Harold Godwinson. They employed their well tested axe and shield wall. Tightly packed in close formation they would advance on their enemy, block any opposing strikes with their round shields and then counterattacking overhead with swings from their battle axes, all the time having javelins thrown from their rear ranks as the front line pushed forward together in an effort to make the opposing force lose their footing and fall, thus becoming easy targets. The main principle was purposeful unity. The entire wall worked together in unison, not dissimilar from a rugby maul.

This tactic had proved very successful in 1066 in repealing a Viking invasion at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, in the north of England. Harold’s troops now marched south to Sussex as quick as possible to repeal the Norman invaders. However in the south they faced a very different foe. Opposing the Anglo-Saxons was an entrenched modern army, one that the Saxons had no experience in dealing with. As the saying goes, generals always fight the last war. Harold’s forces exhausted from the long march, charged head first into Williams elite strike-force.

The Normans used their new kite-shaped shields, mounted knights with lances, crossbowmen and chain-mailed heavy infantry. Differentiating fact from legend can be difficult with a battle that occurred almost 1,000 years ago. But the story goes that William’s forces were beginning to rout from the advancing unstoppable Anglo-Saxon shield wall, rumour had spread amongst the men that William himself had fallen victim to its wrath.

Bayeux Tapestry: Harold (centre left) takes an arrow to the eye

William, removing his helmet cried out for the men to return to the battlefield and press on for victory. The chasing Anglo-Saxons had abandoned their shield wall formation to pursue the fleeing Normans. It was at that point that the Normans quickly reorganised and followed their Duke into the carnage. Harold’s men taken by surprise, found themselves fighting man to man, dispersed and isolated they were no match for the Norman Knights. Calvary rode through their ranks and confusion reigned.

Then as a fulfilment of justice “King'' Harold, having broken his oath, was shot by an arrow directly in the eye. This can be seen above in the Bayeux Tapestry (directly below the “Harold“ between the “O” and the “L”) under the writing “Harold Rex Interfectus Est'': "King Harold was killed".

The battle was decisive, Anglo-Saxon military power was crushed utterly. The struggle against the Normans then shifted to a prolonged guerilla campaign in the countryside, particularly the north of England. William keen to assert his title as king of England launched a campaign of suppression that would become known as the Harrowing of the North. All opposition, military or otherwise was brutally put down. Entire villages were burnt to the ground and motte and bailey forts dotted the countryside. These forts were then replaced by stone castles. The castles were spread out in such a way that no point of the land was more than a days ride to the nearest stronghold.

Aerial photo of Dover Castle ©Chensiyuan

Norman castles often featured outer perimeter walls (first with square and then round integrated towers) and a main square keep. Well preserved examples can be seen today in both Rochester and Dover Castle in Kent, St John’s castle in Co. Limerick and Trim in Co. Meath. Wherever possible castles were built on high ground with limited approaches of attack. Castello Normanno Aci in Sicily is a good example of effective use of typography .

The battle and subsequent consolidation of power marked a radical turning point in the history of England. William was crowned in Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day 1066 and bestowed the title “the Conqueror”. He then built an abbey on the site of the battlefield. Such a project was ordered by Pope Alexander II, to be undertaken as an act of penance for the destruction caused by Williams ruthless crushing of Anglo-Saxon dissent.

The Normans then went about reshaping their new realm. They redirected their desire for discipline and order to the field of bureaucracy. Less than six months after his victory over the Anglo-Saxons, William commissioned a nationwide survey of his new kingdom. This became known as the doomsday inquisition. Doomsday as it spelt the decisive and permanent end of Anglo-Saxon control of England. William with this new survey knew exactly how many inhabitants and the distribution of land in his new Kingdom.

Once this information was collected he redistributed the land of England amongst himself and his supporters. 20% went directly to the king himself, 25% (the largest single share) went to the Church, 50% was distributed to the various Norman noblemen that aided William and only 5% of the land of England remained with the old English nobles. Overnight the Anglo-Saxons lost 95% of their power.

To further emphasise the new status quo, William, just as his forefathers had done in Normandy, set about building imposing stone castles and grand cathedrals across the realm. Cathedrals like Duhrem, Ely and Winchester. These new cathedrals by far outshone their Anglo-Saxon forerunners, both in size and beauty. As was typical for Norman architecture, the cathedrals featured large rounded arches and high ceilings with stained glass windows filling the entire structure will multicolored rays of light.

Main nave of Rouen Cathedral ©DXR_wikicommons

They also fundamentally changed the legal and language structure of England. It was the Normans that developed a standardized common law system which would provide the foundation for the legal system of the English speaking world of today and exists till this day in its purest form on the channel island between France and England.

No more would matters be decided by varying local customs or the arbitrary will of a mob or ruler. Instead the individual was entitled to certain limited protection for the overreach of the state. While limited to nobles, Magna Carta 1215 established a right of those ruled to rebel against the violation of their rights. This was a watershed moment in the development of Western thought and a foreshadow of 16th and 18th century resistance theory, most notably the American revolution.

The Normans brought along with them their language to England. Their rule saw the transition from old English to middle English, with less Germanic and more romance influence. Over time their old Norman French became the distinct Anglo-Norman and then became middle English, much closer to the modern English which we all recognize today.

Ely cathedral main nave ©Diliff_wikicommons

Indeed even in the names of the Kings of England before and after 1066 we can see just how much of an impact the Normans had. One would be hard pressed to find a Æthelred, Sweyn or an Earwig amongst their friends at university, however we’re surrounded by Johns, Stephens, Richards, Roberts, and Williams. In this simple way we can see how they set the standard for what we think of as English.

For almost 300 years the language of common folk and the ruling elite was entirely different. In the course of the transition to middle English many words had mutually recognised duplications. This is why English has so many words compared to other European languages. One can say Royal, from romance origin, or rather Kingly, from germanic origin.

Today we use royal more so than Kingly. This might be explained by the power dynamic of the new status quo mentioned above. Since the Normans controlled 70% of the land, nearly all words associated with power and luxury use the romance word and common everyday words use the Germanic.

The best examples of this are cow and beef or sheep and lamb. The old English population farmed the land and cared for the livestock and the Normans ate what was produced. Accordingly in English unlike most language we have different words for an animal and the meat of said animal.

When the Normans weren’t busy suppressing revolts, building castles and consecrating cathedrals, they turned their hand to higher education. Aided by the Catholic Church, they established the English university system, founding Oxford and Cambridge in the 12th and 13th century.

14th Century illumination from the manuscript "Grandes Chroniques de France" depicting English and French knights at war.

By the early 13th Century their main powerbase was England and their ancestral homeland of Normandy was very much of secondary importance. A new English identity began to emerge distinct and in opposition to their Franco-Norse roots.

Step by step, the present French heartland territory was beginning to take shape. This involved acquiring all Anglo-Norman territory in western continental Europe. In 1204 the Norman king John lost Normandy and other English controlled lands on the continent to the King Philip II of France. And so began a near millennia long feud that somewhat continues to this day.

With this loss, the Normans now saw their density solely in the British Isles. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily was passed on to the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Jerusalem was carving out its own path under separate Norman administration.

Richard Cœur de Lion, Carlo Marochetti's 1856 statue of Richard I, Westminster, London ©Boris Shenton

Many have long wondered what accounted for this transformation. Whatever doubts that we may have today, for Christian Monks of the time (whose forerunners had suffered terribly under the Norsemen), the answer was clear; such a dramatic transformation could only be attributed to their conversion to the Church. As they saw it, the inclusion of the Norsemen into Christendom had a profoundly rehabilitating influence. To them and indeed us today, theirs is a story of rebirth.

The legacy of the Normans is most strongly felt in the British Isles. The Normans introduced the castle to England. Before they came in 1066 there were none whatsoever and yet in only one generation more than 1,000 were scattered throughout the land. Most were temporary wooden structures, but a minority were colossal stone monsters which struck fear into any Anglo-Saxon even contemplating rebelling against their Norman overlords. The Castle, the mounted Knight and the crusades, all that we think of as medieval, is essentially Norman.

Niall Buckley

February 2020